A quarter of a century ago, as humankind came to grips with the fact that the climate was warming, world leaders finalised a landmark treaty — the Kyoto Protocol.
Named after the Japanese city where negotiations were concluded on December 11, 1997, the agreement resulted in the first legally binding targets for dozens of developed nations to reduce or slow the growth of their greenhouse gas emissions.
Developing nations were excluded from such obligations and, in the early 2000s, the US — at the time the world’s biggest emitter of greenhouse gases — decided not to ratify the treaty. Canada also went on to withdraw from the protocol.
Niklas Hoehne, founder of the German think tank the NewClimate Institute for Climate Policy and Global Sustainability, said despite this “major failure” to include the US, the protocol had many achievements, especially in the EU, which “took it seriously and wanted to comply”.
“In the European Union, it initiated a whole set of policies that significantly changed the climate policies of the [bloc],” he said.
“Without the Kyoto Protocol, there wouldn’t be emissions trading, effort sharing [the EU’s mechanism for allocating greenhouse gas commitments to member states], car standards, a whole set of new policies.”
The Kyoto Protocol was struck five years after the landmark “Earth Summit” in Brazil, where nations agreed on the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which set up the structure for dealing with the issue.
The protocol was designed to achieve the UNFCCC’s aim of stabilising greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that limited harm.
Under the protocol, 41 industrialised nations and the EU pledged that, by 2012, they would cut emissions of six greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2 per cent compared to 1990 levels.
There were many ways in which emissions reductions could be achieved, including investing in clean technologies in developing nations, something known as the clean development mechanism.
Although it later refused to ratify the protocol, the US was central to designing it, said Michael Grubb, professor of energy and climate change at University College London.
Al Gore, the US vice president at the time, took part in the negotiations, and the treaty was signed by Bill Clinton, a Democrat, in late 1998. But there was heavy opposition to the measure in the US Senate.
“The Republicans always said the US had overcommitted, the target was too ambitious and it made no sense without the developing countries,” Dr Grubb said.
George W Bush criticised the treaty during his campaign for the US presidency in 2000 and, in March the following year, not long after moving into the White House, he said his country would not enact the agreement.
In 2005, when the protocol came into effect, annual US carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and industry were 6.14 gigatonnes (with one gigatonne equal to one billion tonnes), while those of the EU were 4.31Gt, OurWorldinData reports.
Between 2005 and 2021, the US and EU showed similar reductions in absolute terms, their emissions falling to 5.01Gt and 3.14Gt, respectively. In percentage terms, however, the EU achieved a faster decrease of 27 per cent, compared to 18 per cent for the US.
The omission from the protocol of China was significant. Lumped in with developing nations, it was exempt from the treaty’s requirements — only for its emissions to soar at a rate unseen before.
In 1997, when the protocol was agreed to, China pumped out 3.57Gt of CO2 from industry and the burning of fossil fuels.
By the time the protocol passed into law in 2005, this had risen to 5.88Gt, and a year later, China overtook the US as the world’s biggest emitter.
After further steep rises, the country’s CO2 emissions last year were estimated at 11.47Gt, but the NewClimate Institute has projected they will peak in 2025.
When the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol started and the original framework convention was developed, it was “a very different world”, said Dr Grubb.
“Developing countries’ emissions were fairly small on an absolute basis … and the treaty said this problem has been caused by emissions from the industrialised world and they have the responsibility,” he said.
The Kyoto Protocol was, he continued, in part about developed countries, especially those in the EU, showing that it was possible to continue to develop while limiting emissions.
Green revolution
This was demonstrated by the “revolution in renewables”, as Dr Grubb described it, that came in the protocol’s wake.
Echoing this, Edgar Hertwich, a professor in industrial ecology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, credits the protocol with improving energy efficiency and pushing forward wind and solar power.
The protocol was, however, “really weak in what it was aiming for”, he said. As well as the absence of emissions reductions for scores of developing nations, targets for developed countries were “quite modest”.
While its goals were reached, Dr Hertwich said it was unclear how much the protocol was actually the cause for this. The process, he said, “could have gone a lot faster”.
“I think in the end the story will be one of a missed opportunity because there wasn’t enough will back then to act strongly,” he said.
“I think the Paris Agreement is in a sense a much better set-up. OK, it doesn’t have the same national targets for emissions that the Kyoto Protocol had, but at the same time it does [have] a dynamic mechanism for ratcheting up commitments by national governments.”
The Paris Agreement, struck in 2015, included both developed and developing nations and had more ambitious long-term goals “but pretty fuzzy implementation”, Dr Grubb said.
Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, it did not create legally binding targets, reflecting the tension between getting an agreement that is broad and one that is deep.
“By then [2015], developing countries were worried about climate change. They still felt it should be some other countries’ responsibility, but they did want to try to find a way forward,” he said.
“The more countries you have on board, the weaker the structure is going to be. That’s almost unavoidable.”
As part of the Paris Agreement — the first proper stocktaking of which is set to happen at Cop28 in the UAE in late 2023 — countries put forward Nationally Determined Contributions, their pledges on what action they will take to reduce emissions and adapt to climate change.
These are put forward by nations knowing that they will not be held legally accountable, Dr Grubb said, and implementation can be especially problematic if there is a change of government, as an incoming administration may not feel obliged to adhere to the commitments of its predecessor.
There are, then, both pluses and minuses to the Kyoto Protocol and its successors.
Despite its faults, the Kyoto Protocol in the form that it was agreed to was “an essential first step”, Dr Hoehne said, given that in 1992, five years before it was signed, the decision had been made that developed countries should act first.
“Therefore it was a very important step along the way,” he said. “I’m sure it paved the way towards agreements with all countries.”
MOUNTAINHEAD REVIEW
Starring: Ramy Youssef, Steve Carell, Jason Schwartzman
Director: Jesse Armstrong
Rating: 3.5/5
Key facilities
- Olympic-size swimming pool with a split bulkhead for multi-use configurations, including water polo and 50m/25m training lanes
- Premier League-standard football pitch
- 400m Olympic running track
- NBA-spec basketball court with auditorium
- 600-seat auditorium
- Spaces for historical and cultural exploration
- An elevated football field that doubles as a helipad
- Specialist robotics and science laboratories
- AR and VR-enabled learning centres
- Disruption Lab and Research Centre for developing entrepreneurial skills
MATCH INFO
Uefa Champions League semi-final, first leg
Bayern Munich v Real Madrid
When: April 25, 10.45pm kick-off (UAE)
Where: Allianz Arena, Munich
Live: BeIN Sports HD
Second leg: May 1, Santiago Bernabeu, Madrid
MATCH INFO
Austria 2
Hinteregger (53'), Schopf (69')
Germany 1
Ozil (11')
Tearful appearance
Chancellor Rachel Reeves set markets on edge as she appeared visibly distraught in parliament on Wednesday.
Legislative setbacks for the government have blown a new hole in the budgetary calculations at a time when the deficit is stubbornly large and the economy is struggling to grow.
She appeared with Keir Starmer on Wednesday and the pair embraced but he failed to give her his backing as she cried a day earlier.
A spokesman said her upset demeanour was due to a personal matter.
POSSIBLE ENGLAND EURO 2020 SQUAD
Goalkeepers: Jordan Pickford, Nick Pope, Dean Henderson.
Defenders: Trent Alexander-Arnold, Kieran Trippier, Joe Gomez, John Stones, Harry Maguire, Tyrone Mings, Ben Chilwell, Fabian Delph.
Midfielders: Declan Rice, Harry Winks, Jordan Henderson, Ross Barkley, Mason Mount, Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain.
Forwards: Harry Kane, Raheem Sterling, Marcus Rashford, Jadon Sancho, Tammy Abraham, Callum Hudson-Odoi.
'Panga'
Directed by Ashwiny Iyer Tiwari
Starring Kangana Ranaut, Richa Chadha, Jassie Gill, Yagya Bhasin, Neena Gupta
Rating: 3.5/5
Benefits of first-time home buyers' scheme
- Priority access to new homes from participating developers
- Discounts on sales price of off-plan units
- Flexible payment plans from developers
- Mortgages with better interest rates, faster approval times and reduced fees
- DLD registration fee can be paid through banks or credit cards at zero interest rates
The specs
Engine: 3.0-litre six-cylinder turbo
Power: 398hp from 5,250rpm
Torque: 580Nm at 1,900-4,800rpm
Transmission: Eight-speed auto
Fuel economy, combined: 6.5L/100km
On sale: December
Price: From Dh330,000 (estimate)
LIVING IN...
This article is part of a guide on where to live in the UAE. Our reporters will profile some of the country’s most desirable districts, provide an estimate of rental prices and introduce you to some of the residents who call each area home.
The specs
Engine: four-litre V6 and 3.5-litre V6 twin-turbo
Transmission: six-speed and 10-speed
Power: 271 and 409 horsepower
Torque: 385 and 650Nm
Price: from Dh229,900 to Dh355,000
Living in...
This article is part of a guide on where to live in the UAE. Our reporters will profile some of the country’s most desirable districts, provide an estimate of rental prices and introduce you to some of the residents who call each area home.
The alternatives
• Founded in 2014, Telr is a payment aggregator and gateway with an office in Silicon Oasis. It’s e-commerce entry plan costs Dh349 monthly (plus VAT). QR codes direct customers to an online payment page and merchants can generate payments through messaging apps.
• Business Bay’s Pallapay claims 40,000-plus active merchants who can invoice customers and receive payment by card. Fees range from 1.99 per cent plus Dh1 per transaction depending on payment method and location, such as online or via UAE mobile.
• Tap started in May 2013 in Kuwait, allowing Middle East businesses to bill, accept, receive and make payments online “easier, faster and smoother” via goSell and goCollect. It supports more than 10,000 merchants. Monthly fees range from US$65-100, plus card charges of 2.75-3.75 per cent and Dh1.2 per sale.
• 2checkout’s “all-in-one payment gateway and merchant account” accepts payments in 200-plus markets for 2.4-3.9 per cent, plus a Dh1.2-Dh1.8 currency conversion charge. The US provider processes online shop and mobile transactions and has 17,000-plus active digital commerce users.
• PayPal is probably the best-known online goods payment method - usually used for eBay purchases - but can be used to receive funds, providing everyone’s signed up. Costs from 2.9 per cent plus Dh1.2 per transaction.
UAE currency: the story behind the money in your pockets
At a glance
Global events: Much of the UK’s economic woes were blamed on “increased global uncertainty”, which can be interpreted as the economic impact of the Ukraine war and the uncertainty over Donald Trump’s tariffs.
Growth forecasts: Cut for 2025 from 2 per cent to 1 per cent. The OBR watchdog also estimated inflation will average 3.2 per cent this year
Welfare: Universal credit health element cut by 50 per cent and frozen for new claimants, building on cuts to the disability and incapacity bill set out earlier this month
Spending cuts: Overall day-to day-spending across government cut by £6.1bn in 2029-30
Tax evasion: Steps to crack down on tax evasion to raise “£6.5bn per year” for the public purse
Defence: New high-tech weaponry, upgrading HM Naval Base in Portsmouth
Housing: Housebuilding to reach its highest in 40 years, with planning reforms helping generate an extra £3.4bn for public finances
Real estate tokenisation project
Dubai launched the pilot phase of its real estate tokenisation project last month.
The initiative focuses on converting real estate assets into digital tokens recorded on blockchain technology and helps in streamlining the process of buying, selling and investing, the Dubai Land Department said.
Dubai’s real estate tokenisation market is projected to reach Dh60 billion ($16.33 billion) by 2033, representing 7 per cent of the emirate’s total property transactions, according to the DLD.
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The schedule
December 5 - 23: Shooting competition, Al Dhafra Shooting Club
December 9 - 24: Handicrafts competition, from 4pm until 10pm, Heritage Souq
December 11 - 20: Dates competition, from 4pm
December 12 - 20: Sour milk competition
December 13: Falcon beauty competition
December 14 and 20: Saluki races
December 15: Arabian horse races, from 4pm
December 16 - 19: Falconry competition
December 18: Camel milk competition, from 7.30 - 9.30 am
December 20 and 21: Sheep beauty competition, from 10am
December 22: The best herd of 30 camels
Full list of Emmy 2020 nominations
LEAD ACTOR IN A COMEDY SERIES
Anthony Anderson, Black-ish
Don Cheadle, Black Monday
Ted Danson, The Good Place
Michael Douglas, The Kominsky Method
Eugene Levy, Schitt’s Creek
Ramy Youssef, Ramy
LEAD ACTRESS IN A COMEDY SERIES
Christina Applegate, Dead to Me
Rachel Brosnahan, The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel
Linda Cardellini, Dead to Me
Catherine O’Hara, Schitt’s Creek
Issa Rae, Insecure
Tracee Ellis Ross, Black-ish
OUTSTANDING VARIETY/TALK SERIES
The Daily Show with Trevor Noah
Full Frontal with Samantha Bee
Jimmy Kimmel Live
Last Week Tonight with John Oliver
The Late Show with Stephen Colbert
LEAD ACTOR IN A DRAMA SERIES
Jason Bateman, Ozark
Sterling K. Brown, This Is Us
Steve Carell, The Morning Show
Brian Cox, Succession
Billy Porter, Pose
Jeremy Strong, Succession
LEAD ACTRESS IN A DRAMA SERIES
Jennifer Aniston, The Morning Show
Olivia Colman, The Crown
Jodie Comer, Killing Eve
Laura Linney, Ozark
Sandra Oh, Killing Eve
Zendaya, Euphoria
OUTSTANDING REALITY/COMPETITION PROGRAM
The Masked Singer
Nailed It!
RuPaul’s Drag Race
Top Chef
The Voice
LEAD ACTOR IN A LIMITED SERIES/TV MOVIE
Jeremy Irons, Watchmen
Hugh Jackman, Bad Education
Paul Mescal, Normal People
Jeremy Pope, Hollywood
Mark Ruffalo, I Know This Much Is True
LEAD ACTRESS IN A LIMITED SERIES/TV MOVIE
Cate Blanchett, Mrs. America
Shira Haas, Unorthodox
Regina King, Watchmen
Octavia Spencer, Self Made
Kerry Washington, Little Fires Everywhere
OUTSTANDING LIMITED SERIES
Little Fires Everywhere
Mrs. America
Unbelievable
Unorthodox
Watchmen
OUTSTANDING COMEDY SERIES
Curb Your Enthusiasm
Dead to Me
The Good Place
Insecure
The Kominsky Method
The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel
Schitt’s Creek
What We Do In The Shadows
OUTSTANDING DRAMA SERIES
Better Call Saul
The Crown
The Handmaid’s Tale
Killing Eve
The Mandalorian
Ozark
Stranger Things
Succession
Killing of Qassem Suleimani
Killing of Qassem Suleimani
Mohammed bin Zayed Majlis
