Dr Justin Thomas is a chartered health psychologist, author and a columnist for The National
October 17, 2022
Last week our team, an international collaborative spanning four universities, published its latest research findings in the journal Informatics. Our project explored chatbots, those occasionally annoying computer programs that simulate conversation with human users. Led by Dr Mohammad Kuhail from Zayed University, we examined whether altering a chatbot's personality traits might make it more trustworthy, engaging and liked.
Such research is increasingly important, as these eager electronic helpers begin to facilitate more and more of our routine online transactions. Also known as conversational agents, chatbots are everywhere, from "celebrity" helpers such as Siri and Alexa to the multitude of nameless bots that pop up online offering unsolicited assistance.
Some of the earliest chatbots, however, pre-date the internet. Eliza, for example, was developed in 1966. This chatty piece of software was based on the communication style of a Rogerian psychotherapist. Eliza typically repeats back what the user said, while also posing an open-ended question. For example, tell Eliza that you hate her, and she will respond with something like: "I see. You hate me. Why do you think you feel that way?"
The fact that virtual assistants such as Alexa and Siri overwhelmingly have female voices could point to human bias during their development. AP
As an undergraduate psychology student, I would introduce some of my fellow students to Eliza as though she were an online human. These conversations might go on for several minutes before my naive classmate realised they were pouring their soul out to a bot.
Today's bots, though, are not trying to pass themselves off as humans. Generally, it's enough that they are polite and efficient and help us achieve our goals. According to a 2022 report by Gartner, a leading information technology advisory company, chatbots will become the primary customer service channel for roughly a quarter of all organisations in the US by 2027. The same report suggests that 54 per cent of us are already regularly interacting with chatbots, typically in commercial contexts, for example, online shopping or travel bookings.
What are the psychological implications of our reliance on artificially intelligent chatbots? Does the fact that we are dealing with non-human agents make us less polite?
Research presented at the Conference on Human Factors in Computing in 2019 suggests that more than 10 per cent of our interactions with chatbots are abusive. Some people feel disinhibited when talking to a chatbot, using a tone and language they would rarely use with a fellow human. In the future, such chatbot abuse might not be so lightly tolerated. An article published in 2016 in the Harvard Business Review warns that cursing out an underperforming chatbot may soon become a workplace disciplinary issue. The article suggests that, at the very least, it represents poor leadership-by-example.
Consider also how the social development of a young child might be affected by regularly witnessing an adult verbally abuse a chatbot. One of my colleagues, a psychologist specialising in childhood development, expressed concerns that her young children were being rude and abrupt when speaking to chatbots. She now insists on "please and thank you" for bots too.
Another subtle psychological impact bots can have on us is to reinforce existing social stereotypes. For example, how best to represent the bot using a human avatar? What ethnicity? What gender?
In 2019, Unesco launched a policy paper titled "I'd Blush if I Could: Closing Gender Divides in Digital Skills through Education". The document warns that, as gendered chatbots become increasingly common, they have the power to entrench and reinforce existing gender-related stereotypes. The report draws attention to the fact that, by default, the English-language versions of Siri, Alexa and Cortana were all initially assigned female names and personas. More troublingly, even when faced with aggressive and abusive enquiries, these servile bots with female personas remained docile, agreeable and, occasionally, even flirtatious. About 91 per cent of those employed in Silicon Valley are male.
The radical prospect of the metaverse means humans should be thinking even harder about making the internet safe. AFP
On March 31, 2021, Apple updated its operating system and Siri no longer defaults to female. Regardless, how chatbots are represented remains a critical social issue. Furthermore, the metaverse (collective virtual/augmented reality) will introduce us to life-like, three-dimensional chatbots: slapable Siri.
Our research is a small contribution to understanding how we can make chatbot interactions more effective, human and humane. In our most recent study, we tinkered with chatbot personality, dialling up and down the levels of extraversion. We also did the same for levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness (the tendency to be careful, diligent and dutiful). Our usage context was academic advising, helping undergraduate students navigate college life. Personality mattered. All the chatbots were equally helpful. However, the students trusted and liked (intended to use) those with higher levels of extraversion and agreeableness.
As more of life is lived online, making the world a better place becomes synonymous with improving the internet, not speed and coverage, but content and culture. Interdisciplinary research is critical to this mission. This focus is more important than ever as we begin unlocking the potential of the metaverse.
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There are different types of travel available for pets:
Manifest cargo
Excess luggage in the hold
Excess luggage in the cabin
Each option is safe. The feasibility of each option is based on the size and breed of your pet, the airline they are traveling on and country they are travelling to.
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2. What is the difference between my pet traveling as manifest cargo or as excess luggage?
If traveling as manifest cargo, your pet is traveling in the front hold of the plane and can travel with or without you being on the same plane. The cost of your pets travel is based on volumetric weight, in other words, the size of their travel crate.
If traveling as excess luggage, your pet will be in the rear hold of the plane and must be traveling under the ticket of a human passenger. The cost of your pets travel is based on the actual (combined) weight of your pet in their crate.
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3. What happens when my pet arrives in the country they are traveling to?
As soon as the flight arrives, your pet will be taken from the plane straight to the airport terminal.
If your pet is traveling as excess luggage, they will taken to the oversized luggage area in the arrival hall. Once you clear passport control, you will be able to collect them at the same time as your normal luggage. As you exit the airport via the ‘something to declare’ customs channel you will be asked to present your pets travel paperwork to the customs official and / or the vet on duty.Â
If your pet is traveling as manifest cargo, they will be taken to the Animal Reception Centre. There, their documentation will be reviewed by the staff of the ARC to ensure all is in order. At the same time, relevant customs formalities will be completed by staff based at the arriving airport.Â
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4. How long does the travel paperwork and other travel preparations take?
This depends entirely on the location that your pet is traveling to. Your pet relocation compnay will provide you with an accurate timeline of how long the relevant preparations will take and at what point in the process the various steps must be taken.
In some cases they can get your pet ‘travel ready’ in a few days. In others it can be up to six months or more.
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5. What vaccinations does my pet need to travel?
Regardless of where your pet is traveling, they will need certain vaccinations. The exact vaccinations they need are entirely dependent on the location they are traveling to. The one vaccination that is mandatory for every country your pet may travel to is a rabies vaccination.
Other vaccinations may also be necessary. These will be advised to you as relevant. In every situation, it is essential to keep your vaccinations current and to not miss a due date, even by one day. To do so could severely hinder your pets travel plans.
The lowest safety level. These labs work with viruses that are minimal risk to humans.
Hand washing is required on entry and exit and potentially infectious material decontaminated with bleach before thrown away.
Must have a lock. Access limited. Lab does not need to be isolated from other buildings.
Used as teaching spaces.
Study microorganisms such as Staphylococcus which causes food poisoning.
Biosafety Level 2
These labs deal with pathogens that can be harmful to people and the environment such as Hepatitis, HIV and salmonella.
Working in Level 2 requires special training in handling pathogenic agents.
Extra safety and security precautions are taken in addition to those at Level 1
Biosafety Level 3
These labs contain material that can be lethal if inhaled. This includes SARS coronavirus, MERS, and yellow fever.
Significant extra precautions are taken with staff given specific immunisations when dealing with certain diseases.
Infectious material is examined in a biological safety cabinet.
Personnel must wear protective gowns that must be discarded or decontaminated after use.
Strict safety and handling procedures are in place. There must be double entrances to the building and they must contain self-closing doors to reduce risk of pathogen aerosols escaping.
Windows must be sealed. Air from must be filtered before it can be recirculated.
Biosafety Level 4
The highest level for biosafety precautions. Scientist work with highly dangerous diseases that have no vaccine or cure.
All material must be decontaminated.
Personnel must wear a positive pressure suit for protection. On leaving the lab this must pass through decontamination shower before they have a personal shower.
Entry is severely restricted to trained and authorised personnel. All entries are recorded.
