“Every one comes soon or late round by Rome,” wrote the poet Robert Browning a century and more ago, looking at the endless stream of tourists walking around the city’s ruins – and looking also at the rows of books about the city and its history on his bookshelves. It’s a number that grows all the time, spurred by the perennial appeal of the subject, the dramatic arc of a civilisation moving from republic to empire to eastern autocracy, an arc spanning centuries and leaving an indelible mark on the shape of the modern world.
The first part of that famous arc, Rome's rise to Mediterranean domination after it threw off its primitive monarchy and became a republic in 509 BC, reaches a kind of apogee in the epic series of wars it fought with its erstwhile trading rival and sometime trading partner, the North African city of Carthage. These Punic Wars began in 264 BC and flamed back to life roughly every generation until 146 BC, with the First bringing initial hostilities to a close in 241 BC, the famous Second lasting from 218 to 201 BC, and the Third starting in 149 and ending in 146 with the total destruction of Carthage and the death or enslavement of its entire population. Ancient historians such as Livy and Polybius saw at once the immense dramatic and even moralising potential of such a conflict between two of the West's most powerful cities, and this story – one "blended of calculation, and (just as often) miscalculation, heroism, cruelty, stubborn resolve, and the unexpected" – gets a lively retelling in Dexter Hoyos's new book Mastering the West.
Hoyos has been a translator of Livy, and it shows in the vibrancy and speed of his narrative, which mirrors the master. He takes his readers through all the thrilling high points of these wars that “destroyed one empire and launched another”, naturally spending a good deal of effort on the meteoric career of Carthaginian general Hannibal, whose victories against a series of Roman armies from 218 to 216 BC formed the most glorious hour of Carthage, a civilisation whose shortcomings – military and social – Hoyos assesses with refreshingly stern even-handedness. He talks about the waste and occasional savagery of the empire’s social systems, and he mentions, on the military front, that although the Carthaginians enjoyed a high reputation for naval success, “in reality, they lost about as many sea battles as they won, even before their disastrous Roman clashes”.
Those clashes left Rome the dominant military and mercantile power in the West, a republic in control of a burgeoning empire. That empire required vast military forces to patrol and garrison, and vast military forces always present a temptation to would-be military dictators. A series of such men – able to bribe Rome’s vaunted legions and willing to subvert Rome’s laws in order to seize personal power – shook the republic to its foundations in the first century BC, bringing the entire history of Rome to a choke-point of institutional transformation. As Shakespeare’s Cassius asks with withering bitterness: “When could they say till now, that talk’d of Rome,/ That her wide walls encompass’d but one man?”
That one man, of course, was Julius Caesar, whose life was a curious mixture of civil clemency and ruthless military autocracy and whose assassination in 44 BC ended all but the pretence of republicanism and set Rome on the path of a hereditary imperium. Barry Strauss, the author of several works of popular history about the ancient world, places that assassination at the heart of his new book The Death of Caesar, in which Caesar's ambitions to be king in all but name move a large group of conspirators to murder him in what they believed was the people's cause. "Hatred is one of the ruler's greatest dangers, especially hatred from the common people," Strauss writes. "Hatred stirs conspiracies, while hatred by the people makes conspirators think they can get away with their plans."
Strauss is no apologist. He dramatises the incident in February 44 BC when Mark Antony three times offers Caesar a crown in public, noting that although Caesar theatrically refused it, the staginess of the moment raised nervous speculation that the real thing was in the offing. In three months, as Strauss puts it, “Caesar had disrespected the Senate, dispensed with the People’s Tribunes, and flirted with monarchy” – and all know the price he paid.
“History respects tradition but it is hard on institutions that don’t evolve with the times,” Strauss writes, and Rome did evolve in the wake of Caesar’s death. Emperors came and went, first expanding Rome’s military might and territorial reach to its zenith in the first century AD under Trajan, and then beginning a long and fitful contraction under his successor Hadrian. The empire remained fearfully strong, but it shape-shifted, concentrating more and more of its power and commerce farther and farther east, until finally the emperor Constantine established Byzantium as the new capital of the empire in AD 330. Historians have tended to view this as a radical new stage in Rome’s ongoing evolution, a third story-arc in which the old republic and empire became virtually unrecognisable under a thick patina of eastern theocratic emperor-worship – an arc in which Rome essentially became an Asian sultanate in all but name.
Ohio State University classics professor Anthony Kaldellis, in his exhilarating new work The Byzantine Republic, takes issue with this conception right from his book's title. Rome, he contends, the old, recognisable Rome of Italy and the Mediterranean, is "written all over the Byzantine evidence" – and it evolved far more subtly and successfully than most previous historians have credited.
The typical view of the eastern Empire, in an eloquent line by Edward Gibbon elaborated by a legion of subsequent chroniclers, is of an all-powerful church increasingly taking over every aspect of government and transforming the emperor into a quasi-divine figure of eastern-style worship, rather than the more mundane “first citizen” he had styled himself as for centuries.
Kaldellis contends, in this genuinely groundbreaking synthesis, that the viewing glass of religion has obscured an eastern Rome that was far more Roman than eastern. “Byzantium,” he writes, “was in fact the continuation of the Roman res publica; and its politics, despite changes in institutions, continued to be dominated by the ideological modes and orders of the republican tradition.” His book looks concisely but energetically at all aspects of the Byzantine arc, studying a fascinating array of eastern sources in search of how the Byzantine Romans themselves conceived of their polity, and his account repeatedly suggests that, as he puts it, “we are dealing here with a political sphere whose fundamental and pre-existing ideological framework was republican, onto which had been superimposed a theocratic rhetoric”.
“It sounds,” he politely contends about the outmoded conceptions his book dispenses with, “as if a set of clichés is being recycled without ever having been tested fully against the evidence.”
Kaldellis does his new theorising against a terminal date carved in history: on May 29, 1453, the eastern capital, renamed Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire, and the long, winding process of Rome’s evolution shifted back west – and began again.
Steve Donoghue is managing editor of Open Letters Monthly.
Mastering the West by Dexter Hoyos, Oxford University Press, Dh107 (Amazon); The Death of Caesar by Barry Strauss, Simon & Schuster, Dh97 (Amazon); The Byzantine Republic by Anthony Kaldellis, Harvard University Press, Dh140 (Amazon).
thereview@thenational.ae
Getting there
The flights
Flydubai operates up to seven flights a week to Helsinki. Return fares to Helsinki from Dubai start from Dh1,545 in Economy and Dh7,560 in Business Class.
The stay
Golden Crown Igloos in Levi offer stays from Dh1,215 per person per night for a superior igloo; www.leviniglut.net
Panorama Hotel in Levi is conveniently located at the top of Levi fell, a short walk from the gondola. Stays start from Dh292 per night based on two people sharing; www. golevi.fi/en/accommodation/hotel-levi-panorama
Arctic Treehouse Hotel in Rovaniemi offers stays from Dh1,379 per night based on two people sharing; www.arctictreehousehotel.com
Killing of Qassem Suleimani
Mountain Classification Tour de France after Stage 8 on Saturday:
- 1. Lilian Calmejane (France / Direct Energie) 11
- 2. Fabio Aru (Italy / Astana) 10
- 3. Daniel Martin (Ireland / Quick-Step) 8
- 4. Robert Gesink (Netherlands / LottoNL) 8
- 5. Warren Barguil (France / Sunweb) 7
- 6. Chris Froome (Britain / Team Sky) 6
- 7. Guillaume Martin (France / Wanty) 6
- 8. Jan Bakelants (Belgium / AG2R) 5
- 9. Serge Pauwels (Belgium / Dimension Data) 5
- 10. Richie Porte (Australia / BMC Racing) 4
UAE currency: the story behind the money in your pockets
Results
6.30pm: Al Maktoum Challenge Round-2 Group 1 (PA) US$75,000 (Dirt) 1,900m
Winner: Ziyadd, Richard Mullen (jockey), Jean de Roualle (trainer).
7.05pm: Al Rashidiya Group 2 (TB) $250,000 (Turf) 1,800m
Winner: Barney Roy, William Buick, Charlie Appleby.
7.40pm: Meydan Cup Listed Handicap (TB) $175,000 (T) 2,810m
Winner: Secret Advisor, Tadhg O’Shea, Charlie Appleby.
8.15pm: Handicap (TB) $175,000 (D) 1,600m
Winner: Plata O Plomo, Carlos Lopez, Susanne Berneklint.
8.50pm: Handicap (TB) $135,000 (T) 1,600m
Winner: Salute The Soldier, Adrie de Vries, Fawzi Nass.
9.25pm: Al Shindagha Sprint Group 3 (TB) $200,000 (D) 1,200m
Winner: Gladiator King, Mickael Barzalona, Satish Seemar.
Premier League results
Saturday
Tottenham Hotspur 1 Arsenal 1
Bournemouth 0 Manchester City 1
Brighton & Hove Albion 1 Huddersfield Town 0
Burnley 1 Crystal Palace 3
Manchester United 3 Southampton 2
Wolverhampton Wanderers 2 Cardiff City 0
West Ham United 2 Newcastle United 0
Sunday
Watford 2 Leicester City 1
Fulham 1 Chelsea 2
Everton 0 Liverpool 0
Profile of Foodics
Founders: Ahmad AlZaini and Mosab AlOthmani
Based: Riyadh
Sector: Software
Employees: 150
Amount raised: $8m through seed and Series A - Series B raise ongoing
Funders: Raed Advanced Investment Co, Al-Riyadh Al Walid Investment Co, 500 Falcons, SWM Investment, AlShoaibah SPV, Faith Capital, Technology Investments Co, Savour Holding, Future Resources, Derayah Custody Co.
Our family matters legal consultant
Name: Hassan Mohsen Elhais
Position: legal consultant with Al Rowaad Advocates and Legal Consultants.
Mercer, the investment consulting arm of US services company Marsh & McLennan, expects its wealth division to at least double its assets under management (AUM) in the Middle East as wealth in the region continues to grow despite economic headwinds, a company official said.
Mercer Wealth, which globally has $160 billion in AUM, plans to boost its AUM in the region to $2-$3bn in the next 2-3 years from the present $1bn, said Yasir AbuShaban, a Dubai-based principal with Mercer Wealth.
“Within the next two to three years, we are looking at reaching $2 to $3 billion as a conservative estimate and we do see an opportunity to do so,” said Mr AbuShaban.
Mercer does not directly make investments, but allocates clients’ money they have discretion to, to professional asset managers. They also provide advice to clients.
“We have buying power. We can negotiate on their (client’s) behalf with asset managers to provide them lower fees than they otherwise would have to get on their own,” he added.
Mercer Wealth’s clients include sovereign wealth funds, family offices, and insurance companies among others.
From its office in Dubai, Mercer also looks after Africa, India and Turkey, where they also see opportunity for growth.
Wealth creation in Middle East and Africa (MEA) grew 8.5 per cent to $8.1 trillion last year from $7.5tn in 2015, higher than last year’s global average of 6 per cent and the second-highest growth in a region after Asia-Pacific which grew 9.9 per cent, according to consultancy Boston Consulting Group (BCG). In the region, where wealth grew just 1.9 per cent in 2015 compared with 2014, a pickup in oil prices has helped in wealth generation.
BCG is forecasting MEA wealth will rise to $12tn by 2021, growing at an annual average of 8 per cent.
Drivers of wealth generation in the region will be split evenly between new wealth creation and growth of performance of existing assets, according to BCG.
Another general trend in the region is clients’ looking for a comprehensive approach to investing, according to Mr AbuShaban.
“Institutional investors or some of the families are seeing a slowdown in the available capital they have to invest and in that sense they are looking at optimizing the way they manage their portfolios and making sure they are not investing haphazardly and different parts of their investment are working together,” said Mr AbuShaban.
Some clients also have a higher appetite for risk, given the low interest-rate environment that does not provide enough yield for some institutional investors. These clients are keen to invest in illiquid assets, such as private equity and infrastructure.
“What we have seen is a desire for higher returns in what has been a low-return environment specifically in various fixed income or bonds,” he said.
“In this environment, we have seen a de facto increase in the risk that clients are taking in things like illiquid investments, private equity investments, infrastructure and private debt, those kind of investments were higher illiquidity results in incrementally higher returns.”
The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, one of the largest sovereign wealth funds, said in its 2016 report that has gradually increased its exposure in direct private equity and private credit transactions, mainly in Asian markets and especially in China and India. The authority’s private equity department focused on structured equities owing to “their defensive characteristics.”
England's Ashes squad
Joe Root (captain), Moeen Ali, Jimmy Anderson, Jofra Archer, Jonny Bairstow, Stuart Broad, Rory Burns, Jos Buttler, Sam Curran, Joe Denly, Jason Roy, Ben Stokes, Olly Stone, Chris Woakes.
Fanney Khan
Producer: T-Series, Anil Kapoor Productions, ROMP, Prerna Arora
Director: Atul Manjrekar
Cast: Anil Kapoor, Aishwarya Rai, Rajkummar Rao, Pihu Sand
Rating: 2/5
DUBAI WORLD CUP RACE CARD
6.30pm Meydan Classic Trial US$100,000 (Turf) 1,400m
7.05pm Handicap $135,000 (T) 1,400m
7.40pm UAE 2000 Guineas Group Three $250,000 (Dirt) 1,600m
8.15pm Dubai Sprint Listed Handicap $175,000 (T) 1,200m
8.50pm Al Maktoum Challenge Round-2 Group Two $450,000 (D) 1,900m
9.25pm Handicap $135,000 (T) 1,800m
10pm Handicap $135,000 (T) 1,400m
The National selections
6.30pm Well Of Wisdom
7.05pm Summrghand
7.40pm Laser Show
8.15pm Angel Alexander
8.50pm Benbatl
9.25pm Art Du Val
10pm: Beyond Reason
Tailors and retailers miss out on back-to-school rush
Tailors and retailers across the city said it was an ominous start to what is usually a busy season for sales.
With many parents opting to continue home learning for their children, the usual rush to buy school uniforms was muted this year.
“So far we have taken about 70 to 80 orders for items like shirts and trousers,” said Vikram Attrai, manager at Stallion Bespoke Tailors in Dubai.
“Last year in the same period we had about 200 orders and lots of demand.
“We custom fit uniform pieces and use materials such as cotton, wool and cashmere.
“Depending on size, a white shirt with logo is priced at about Dh100 to Dh150 and shorts, trousers, skirts and dresses cost between Dh150 to Dh250 a piece.”
A spokesman for Threads, a uniform shop based in Times Square Centre Dubai, said customer footfall had slowed down dramatically over the past few months.
“Now parents have the option to keep children doing online learning they don’t need uniforms so it has quietened down.”
2025 Fifa Club World Cup groups
Group A: Palmeiras, Porto, Al Ahly, Inter Miami.
Group B: Paris Saint-Germain, Atletico Madrid, Botafogo, Seattle.
Group C: Bayern Munich, Auckland City, Boca Juniors, Benfica.
Group D: Flamengo, ES Tunis, Chelsea, (Leon banned).
Group E: River Plate, Urawa, Monterrey, Inter Milan.
Group F: Fluminense, Borussia Dortmund, Ulsan, Mamelodi Sundowns.
Group G: Manchester City, Wydad, Al Ain, Juventus.
Group H: Real Madrid, Al Hilal, Pachuca, Salzburg.
box
COMPANY PROFILE
Company name: Letstango.com
Started: June 2013
Founder: Alex Tchablakian
Based: Dubai
Industry: e-commerce
Initial investment: Dh10 million
Investors: Self-funded
Total customers: 300,000 unique customers every month
The smuggler
Eldarir had arrived at JFK in January 2020 with three suitcases, containing goods he valued at $300, when he was directed to a search area.
Officers found 41 gold artefacts among the bags, including amulets from a funerary set which prepared the deceased for the afterlife.
Also found was a cartouche of a Ptolemaic king on a relief that was originally part of a royal building or temple.
The largest single group of items found in Eldarir’s cases were 400 shabtis, or figurines.
Khouli conviction
Khouli smuggled items into the US by making false declarations to customs about the country of origin and value of the items.
According to Immigration and Customs Enforcement, he provided “false provenances which stated that [two] Egyptian antiquities were part of a collection assembled by Khouli's father in Israel in the 1960s” when in fact “Khouli acquired the Egyptian antiquities from other dealers”.
He was sentenced to one year of probation, six months of home confinement and 200 hours of community service in 2012 after admitting buying and smuggling Egyptian antiquities, including coffins, funerary boats and limestone figures.
For sale
A number of other items said to come from the collection of Ezeldeen Taha Eldarir are currently or recently for sale.
Their provenance is described in near identical terms as the British Museum shabti: bought from Salahaddin Sirmali, "authenticated and appraised" by Hossen Rashed, then imported to the US in 1948.
- An Egyptian Mummy mask dating from 700BC-30BC, is on offer for £11,807 ($15,275) online by a seller in Mexico
- A coffin lid dating back to 664BC-332BC was offered for sale by a Colorado-based art dealer, with a starting price of $65,000
- A shabti that was on sale through a Chicago-based coin dealer, dating from 1567BC-1085BC, is up for $1,950
Celta Vigo 2
Castro (45'), Aspas (82')
Barcelona 2
Dembele (36'), Alcacer (64')
Red card: Sergi Roberto (Barcelona)
Step by step
2070km to run
38 days
273,600 calories consumed
28kg of fruit
40kg of vegetables
45 pairs of running shoes
1 yoga matt
1 oxygen chamber
